November 27 in History

Explanation: The Council of Clermont is one of the founding events of the Crusades. Pope Urban II launched a call to liberate Jerusalem, mobilizing thousands of knights and pilgrims across Western Europe. The 1st Crusade ended with the capture of Jerusalem in 1099.

Explanation: The scuttling of the French fleet at Toulon is one of the most significant events of World War II in France. To prevent 90 vessels from falling into the hands of the Germans, who had just invaded the free zone, French sailors sank their own ships. Among them were battleships, cruisers, and submarines.

Explanation: Nobel signed his will at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris, leaving the bulk of his fortune to create prizes rewarding peace, physics, chemistry, medicine, and literature. The first Nobel Prize ceremony took place in 1901, five years after his death.

Explanation: Juan Carlos I succeeded Francisco Franco, who died on November 20, 1975. Paradoxically chosen by Franco as his successor, Juan Carlos chose to democratize Spain and played a crucial role during the coup attempt of February 23, 1981, by defending democracy on national television.

Explanation: Anders Celsius was first and foremost an astronomer at Uppsala University in Sweden. In 1742 he proposed a thermometric scale based on two fixed points: the melting of ice and the boiling of water. Ironically, his scale was initially inverted (100 for ice, 0 for boiling) before being flipped by his colleague Carl von Linné.

Explanation: John Walker was a pharmacist in Stockton-on-Tees, England, when he accidentally discovered that certain chemical mixtures ignited by friction. He never patented his invention, unlike Samuel Jones who quickly commercialized imitations called 'Lucifers'. Walker simply sold his matches from his shop.

Explanation: Margaret Thatcher resigned after eleven years in power, following a revolt within her own Conservative Party, notably linked to her European policy and the unpopular 'Poll Tax'. She was the first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and remains the British political figure who held that office the longest in the XX century.

Explanation: Alfred Nobel invented dynamite in 1867 by stabilizing nitroglycerin with kieselguhr. This invention revolutionized mining and civil engineering work, but was also used for military purposes. Tormented by the destructive consequences of his invention, Nobel decided to dedicate his fortune to rewarding those who work for the good of humanity.

Explanation: Commodus reigned from 177 to 192 AD and is considered one of Rome's most unstable emperors. He believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules, fought in the arena as a gladiator, and renamed Rome 'Colonia Commodiana'. His chaotic reign marked, for some historians, the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire.

Explanation: Jean-Michel Dubernard, a French surgeon, led the team that performed the very first partial face transplant in Amiens on Isabelle Dinoire, who had been disfigured by her dog. This pioneering operation paved the way for other face transplants around the world. Dubernard had already performed the first hand transplant in 1998.